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Concept mapping

theory00research  0classroom0software0 meta-sites 0reference 0footnotes

 Visualisation tools for knowledge management

a Survey by J.P.van Schie

www.observETory.com

with special acknowledgement of the work of

Brian Gaines, University of Calgary , Claudia Villar, CONICET

& Anonymus et al at George Mason University

in getting this result

May 2002

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Summary  back

Concept mapping is a technique for representing the structure of information visually. There are several uses for concept mapping, such as idea generation, design support, communication enhancement, learning enhancement, and assessment. A wide range of computer software for concept mapping is now available for most of the popular computers used in education.

Definition

Concept mapping is a type of knowledge representation. A concept map is a graphical representation where nodes (points or vertices) represent concepts, and links (arcs or lines) represent the relationships between concepts. The concepts, and sometimes the links, are labeled on the concept map. The links between the concepts can be one-way, two-way, or non-directional. The concepts and the links may be categorized, and the concept map may show temporal or causal relationships between concepts.

Related topics: Cognitivism; Constructivism; Information Processing; Mental Models; Advance Organizers; Mindtools; Schema Theory; Active Learning; Semantic Networks; Collaborative Learning; Personal Construct Psychology; Knowledge Management; Generative Learning

Origin

Concept mapping, in the 1960s developed by Prof. Joseph D. Novack of Cornell University (1983), is a technique for visually representing the structure of information - how concepts within a domain are interrelated. Novak concluded that "Meaningful learning involves the assimilation of new concepts and propositions into existing cognitive structures."

Novak’s work is based on Ausubel's theory of meaningful learning more which stresses that learning new knowledge is dependent on what is already known. More specifically, new knowledge gains meaning when it can be substantively related to a framework of existing knowledge rather than being "processed and filed" in isolation according to more or less arbitrary criteria.

According to Novack, new concepts are acquired "either by discovery, which is mainly the way young children acquire their first concepts and language, or by reception learning, which is the way school children and adults acquire most of their meanings. The problem with much of reception learning in schools is that students learn to memorize definitions of concepts, or algorithms to solve problems, but [...] fail to acquire the meanings of the concepts in the definitions or formulas"(1991). Creating a concept map of a particular domain makes learning an active process rather than a passive one.

A concept map consists of hierarchically arranged nodes or cells that contain a concept, item or question and labeled links. The relationships between nodes/concepts are indicated by "linking" words and an arrow symbol to describe the direction of the relationship. Concept mapping supports the visualization of such conceptual frameworks and "stimulates prior knowledge by making it explicit and requiring the learner to pay attention to the relationship between concepts" (Jonassen, 1996).

An example of a concept map, developed by Novack, showing the key concepts involved in concept mapping is shown below.

 

Application

Concept maps are particularly useful for representing networks of concepts, where links do not only connect adjacent concepts but are often linked to concepts in different sections of the concept map. The resulting web of concepts increases the number of relationships that connect new information to existing concepts thereby increasing the stability of the new information. This type of structural flexibility makes concept mapping highly suitable for hypermedia environments, since the type of linking employed in concept maps is an excellent representation of hypermedia's nonlinear paradigm. Concept maps can be useful as a tool for conceptual development of hypermedia, navigational structures within hypermedia applications, and interfaces for the indexing and retrieval of hypermedia objects. (Plotnick 1997: Gaines and Shaw,1995)

Conversely, computer applications can provide significant support in the creation and maintenance of concept maps. Automated tools can improve visual appearance and consistency. They also facilitate the display and revision of large and / or complex maps through functionalities such as zooming and automatic redraw. Concept mapping can be used for several purposes:

Advantages of Computer Support for Concept Mapping

Jonassen (1990) proposes that few of the computer tools used today for learning have been designed as learning tools. Usually educators use existing tools for teaching purposes. According to Jonassen, concept mapping computer tools belong to the rare category of computer tools that were designed specifically for learning. Some of the advantages of computer support for concept mapping include:

A meta-analysis on studies which used concept mapping as a learning strategy, conducted by Horten et. al. (1993), asked the following questions to determine:

  1. ‘What is the effectiveness of concept mapping as an instructional tool for improving students' achievement?
  2. What is the effectiveness of concept mapping as a strategy for improving students' attitudes?
  3. Is there a difference in the effectiveness of teacher-prepared versus student-prepared concept maps in improving student achievement and/ or attitudes?’

The results indicated that concept mapping raised student achievement on the average by 0.46 standard deviations, as well as a strong improvement in student attitude. However, the results showed little difference between the effectiveness of teacher-prepared versus student-prepared concept maps.

Projects on knowledge management & visualization, tools  back

Classroom

An excellent starting point for classroom activities is Greg Freeman' s site Graphic.org - http://www.graphic.org/index.html. He combines reference to books, suggestions and examples for use in a simple but effective way. Greg also does consultancy on the use of concept mapping tools in the classroom and has links with Inspiration - www.inspiration.com. The Inspiration site also provides many examples of use and has developed some paperbased and digital classroom materials for all age groups. A new product is Kidsspiration, a product specially developed for young children with an easy and intutive interface. Also linked to Inspiration is Engaging Minds - http://www.engagingminds.com/inspiration/ with reference to materials at an e-rate and finally http://www.conceptmapping.com, another Inspiration daughter. Lots of reference to practical resources can be found at Concept Mapping, results of an mailinglist survey.- http://ase.tufts.edu/cae/occasional_papers/concept-map.htm by Leslie McCain.
A small but effective site for teachers is the Electronic Concept Mapping Main Page -  http://www.wv-hsta.org/inspiration/title.htm This web site showcases the ongoing collaborations of secondary science teachers and post-secondary educators involved in an Eisenhower Professional Development Grant to reveal the versatility of electronic concept mapping.
Inspiration reviewed for its use in the classroom by Charles Cave. It briefly goes trough the functionality and gives showviews of its application - http://members.ozemail.com.au/~caveman/Creative/Software/Inspiration/index.html
Software  back

META-sites back

Must read back

Adams. R. et al. A Collaborative Literature Review of Concept Mapping; http://www2.ucsc.edu/mlrg/clr-conceptmapping.html

Gaines, B.R. and Mildred L. G. Shaw. (1995). Concept Maps as Hypermedia Component. Knowledge Science Institute
University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada. http://ksi.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/articles/ConceptMaps/

George Mason University on concept mapping: http://chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase/strategies/cognitivism/conceptmap.htm

Mao J. & Wang C. (2000). Welcome to the discovery of concept maps http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/j/x/jxm651/project1/index.htm

McCain. L. Concept Mapping, results of an mailinglist survey. http://ase.tufts.edu/cae/occasional_papers/concept-map.htm

Villar, C. (1998). Meaningful Learning Theory and Concept Mapping as a Bridge: How to Teach Curricular Material Using Microsoft Access 2.0.http://www.techlearning.com/db_area/archives/WCE/archives/villar.htm

Further reading

Anderson, R. Y, & Ausubel, D. (1965). Readings in the psychology of cognition. New York: Holt & Winston.

Anderson-Inman, L.,& Zeitz, L. (1993, August/September). Computer-based concept-mapping: Active studying for active learners. The Computing Teacher, 21(1). 6-8, 10-11. (EJ 469 254).

Botafogo, R. A., Rivlin, E., & Schneiderman, B. (1992). Structural analysis of hypertexts: Identifying hierarchies and useful metrics. "ACM Transactions on Information Systems," 10, 142-180.

Ausubel, D. (1968). Educational psychology: A cognitive view. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Bitner, B.L. (1996). Interactions between hemisphericity and learning type, and concept mapping attributes of pre-service and in-service teachers. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for Research in Science Teaching (St. Louis, MO, March 31-April 4, 1996). (ED 400 196)

Botafogo, R. A., Rivlin, E., & Schneiderman, B. (1992). Structural analysis of hypertexts: Identifying hierarchies and useful metrics. ACM Transactions on Information Systems, 10, 142-180.

Conklin, E. J. (1987). Hypertext: An introduction and survey. Computer, 20(9), 17-41.

Derry, S.J.(1990). Flexible cognitive tools for problem solving instruction. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston, MA, April 16-20.

Freeman H, Ryan S. Webmapping: Planning, Structuring and Delivering Courseware on the Internet Centre for Educational Technology and Development, De Montfort University, UK http://westworld.dmu.ac.uk/cetd/webmapper/webmapper.html

Horton,P.B., McConney, A.A., Gallo,M,., Woods, A.L., Senn, G.J., & Hamelin, D. (1993). An investigation of the effectiveness of concept mapping as an instructional tool. Science Education. 77(1), 95-111.

Jonassen, D.H. (1990, July). What are cognitive tools?. In P.A.M. Kommers, D.H. Jonassen, & J.T. Mayes (Eds.), Proceedings of the NATA advanced research workshop 'Cognitive tools for learning' (pp. 1-6). Enschede, the Netherlands: University of Twente.

Jonassen, D.H. (1992). Concept mapping and other formalisms as mindtools for representing knowledge. (http://www.icbl.hw.ac.uk/projects/class/granum/altdocs/dav_alt.htm )

Jonassen, D.H. (1996). Computers in the classroom: Mindtools for critical thinking. Eaglewoods, NJ: Merill/Prentice Hall.

Jonassen, D.H. et al (1998) Computers as mindtools for engaging learners in critical thinking. http://www.coe.missouri.edu/~jonassen/Mindtools.pdf

Jonassen, D.H., & Grabowski, B. L. (1993). Handbook of individual differences: Learning & instruction. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates. ISBN: 0-8058-1412-4/0-8058-1413-2.

Jonassen, D.H., & Yacci, M.A. (1993). Structural knowledge: Techniques for conveying, assessing, and acquiring structural knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Lanzing, J. (1997). The concept mapping homepage. http://users.edte.utwente.nl/lanzing/cm_home.htm

Novak, J. D. (1990). Help students learn how to learn: A new perspective. Journal of Higher Education, 2, 54-60.

Novak, J. D. (1993). How do we learn our lesson? Taking students through the process. The Science Teacher, 60(3), 50-55.

Novak, J. D. (1997). Clarify with concept maps revisited. Proceedings of International Meeting on Meaningful Learning, Spain.

Novak, J. D., Gowin, D. B., & Johansen, G. T. (1983). The use of concept mapping and knowledge and mapping with junior high school science students. Science Education, 67, 625-645.

Novak, J.D. (1991). Clarify with concept maps: A tool for students and teachers alike. The Science Teacher, 58 (7), 45-49.

Novak, J.D. The Theory Underlying Concept Maps and How To Construct Them. Cornell University

Plotnic, Eric. (1997). Concept Mapping: a graphical system for understanding the relationship between concepts. ERIC Digest ED407938

Ross, B., & Munby, H. (1991). Concept mapping and misconceptions: A study of high-school students' understanding of acids and bases. International Journal of Science Education, 13(1), 11-24. (EJ 442 063) http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed407938.html

Notes back

(1)  According to Ausubel's (1983) Meaningful Learning Theory, we build meaning every time we establish substantive rather than arbitrary relationships between the study material and existing knowledge. When students encounter new material they approach it from a series of concepts and representations acquired from previous experiences. These experiences are used as instruments of interpretation that partially determine what information the students will absorb, how they will organize the information, what types of relationships they will establish among the pieces of information, what problem-solving techniques they will use, and so on. This explains why the concepts do not represent the same for the teacher as for the student-the concepts have neither the same relevancy nor the same explanatory power. Ausubel argues that when discipline is taught, it fundamentally transmits this conceptual structure to the students.

The appropriation of complex structures of knowledge implies an understanding of them, and that understanding cannot be reached only by routine procedures. The acquisition and retention of a body of knowledge implies the assimilation of a body of conceptual meanings, -the product of meaningful learning. In Ausubel's words, concepts are acquired by progressive differentiation-that is, those concepts that are ordered in a hierarchy that progresses from the most general to the most specific idea. New information is assimilated into existing conceptual hierarchies in the cognitive structure. These modifications are not merely juxtapositions of concepts, because the final meaning of a structure is not equivalent to the sum of the parts-it forms a new structure. In the psychological structure, a related process of integrative reconciliation occurs that allows knowledge to relate to the discipline and modify preconceptions or misconceptions, thus reducing fragmentation and making possible a reflective and critical attitude. The existing structure of knowledge influences the capacity to interpret reality and to take part in it. The capacity to approach and solve problems depends on the density of meanings in the existing structure of knowledge. There will be dominant areas in which the effect from an experience is quite broad and for which the structure of meanings is exceptionally powerful, and there will be others in which precisely the opposite happens. From this perspective, attending to the potential of the study material to develop thought skills implies two things.

First, the knowledge must be organized with the discipline and its methodology following a hierarchical relation scheme that is part of the most general and most inclusive concepts of the material and advances toward the most particular. This descending cyclical sequencing allows us to put relief in different relationships that maintain the concepts among themselves (resemblance, difference, coordination, subordination, etc.).

Second, it must facilitate the assimilation of concepts (the progressive differentiation and the integrative reconciliation) through: